Review of "The World Turned Upside Down" by Christopher Hill (1972)
Book Review: English History; Marxist History; Revolution History
Christopher Hill (1912-2003), the life long Marxist and British historian, ends his 1972 work The World Turned Upside Down with suggesting much could be learned from the radicals of the English Revolution; particularly their willingness to act in turning the world upside down. While following a traditional Marxist framework of class conflict defining all aspects of human existence, he incorporates significant religious and ideological discussions that provide a rich history of the English Civil War.
Hill’s work, written in the decades of societal revolution in the United States and Europe, at times seems to be a lament of the failure of the seventeenth century radicals to create a world not undergirded by the protestant work ethic and middle class bourgeoise capitalist economy. By the way in which Hill describes the 1640s one could be forgiven for believing he was mourning a “paradise lost.”
A World Turned Upside Down is an apt title for this tome. Three hundred and thirteen pages divided into eighteen chapters undergird two fundamental ideas. First, the English Civil War (commonly called in the historical community “The War of the Three Kingdoms”) created two revolutions; one a middle class revolution that valued property, hierarchy, and order; the other a revolution from below which leaned into radical ideas of the abolishment of private property and mass democratization. The second theme revolves around the idea that the political was closely aligned with the religious fervor of the 17th century. Economic temperance and radicalism expressed themselves most clearly in the religious dialogues of the period, prior to the return of Charles II.
The first theme of two revolutions undergirds the entire book. Hill, a committed Marxist argues that the lower sorts, whom he labels a class with a budding “class conscience,” find a voice during the chaotic years of the English Civil War. Their voice is only heightened by the political and economic instability of the period, which exposures serious cracks in the foundations of early modern society. Hill’s radicals are primarily the lower sorts; those without titles, property, or wealth. These men and women have gained access to greater expression as Parliament, in a desperate bid to win the war, creates the New Model Army which opens the doors to democratization in England. Fueled by longstanding Protestant disenchantment with authority, these radicals turn inward to find the divine. Divinity for many of these radicals is not found in the church or scripture, but in the voice of the Holy Spirit in each individual. Hill expertly weaves the deep religious convictions and beliefs surrounding magic and “mysteries,” or the idea of hidden ancient knowledge, with the practical economic and social beliefs of these people. Social mobility and freedom of the press allow for the transmission of radical ideas across England, which Hill suggests had broad popular appeal. Much of the revolutionary sentiment sought to reestablish a “paradise lost,” a world that had existed with societal equality and harmony with God, but had been lost with a mythical Fall. Included in this revolution was a sexual revolution that broke down barriers and “liberated” the people. Biblical skepticism is also highlighted by Hill, a sign to him of the radicals' forward thinking. These radicals challenged for decades the authority of Parliament and England’s elites, only to be crushed in the late 1650s and early 1660s. Ultimately, radical groups like the Levelers and Diggers disappeared, while the Quakers became more middle class and “normal.”
The Second revolution is the antagonist of the radical Levelers, Diggers, and others who were exploring new societal structures during the Civil War. This revolution centered on the growth of a middle class elite who sought to protect the levers of power and societal order that they had gained through the removal of Charles I. While opposed to aristocracy, these middling revolutionaries desired to promote stability and “freedom,” which in Hill’s retelling is synonymous with private property. Motivated by a deep desire for order, these middling sorts are terrified by the radicalism of the lower classes. Though also Protestant and desirous to break down the last vestiges of Catholicism, they are unwilling to completely remove the need for hierarchy in society, which in large measure is a product of their intense devotion to Calvinism. Hill laments their success as he sees it crippling an ancient communist movement that would have changed the trajectory of human history.
While some Marxist historians disregard religions influence, Hill, who once was a devoted Methodist, takes seriously the beliefs of his historical subjects. Hill sees their religiosity as understandable, though irrational. While not as negative as Marx, who called religion an opiate of the masses, Hill does frame religion as a method for people to explain and understand the chaos of a world spinning out of control. Economics undergird religion, people’s religion being primarily a function of their economic situation in life. Middling sorts and elites, such as the New Model Army’s generals remained the retaining wall holding back the forces of revolutionary innovation and societal reconfiguration. The moderates remained committed to ideas of sin and hell, emphasizing a protestant work ethic to obliterate the vices of mankind. Hill argues that though this middle class ultimately won the revolution and shaped the contours of modern society, the radicalness of the English revolution was never long forgotten, appearing over and over again in the modern era.
Hill’s book is fascinating and an excellent Marxist history. That being said, the overemphasis on economics, as well as the inherent skepticism of religion all signal an over placed reliance on the secular thought and confidence in “rationality,” a hallmark of Enlightenment thought and the secular religiosity of the modern era. Furthermore, the author creates classes based off religious beliefs, something that the historical facts do not corroborate. Religion crossed both class and social barriers, Puritans hailing from elites, lower sorts, and middling sorts. Furthermore, in his efforts to draw a pure Marxist interpretation, groups are ramrodded together that were far less united than he portrays. Even more telling is the neglect of the popular support for aristocracy and the world of the Stuarts, as evidenced by the mass demonstrations in favor of Charles II. In many ways, the book illustrates more about the author than the reality of the period.
Still, this was an interesting read, with some memorable phrases. Hill called for revolution, to turn the world upside down in the manner the radicals of the 1600s had done. However, Hill’s work is a tragedy, a brave new world crushed by the forces of capitalism and bourgeoisie morality (perhaps something he believed was occurring in his own day). However, littered throughout are messages of hope of “fighting the system.” One such line was particularly striking.
“The common man, Luther, Calvin, and Knox showed, could remake history if kings and princes did not…with what subsequently seemed to them naive optimism, they called the common man to fight the Lord’s battles against Antichrist.” (73)
Hill was thinking of a communist revolution, a world where the Judeo-Christian/ Capitalist bonds could be shattered and left in the past. In many ways, his vision of a radically reformed world has occurred. Yet, I found this quote had value, despite my deep rejection of the moral and cultural revolutions swirling around the globe. In a world where nihilism and hedonism abound, where morality and wisdom are subsumed in the relentless pursuit of progress and liberation, and where despair and sorrow flourish because of pride and greed, this quote is inspiring. It is a reminder of something that the radicals believed as they marched to face the royalist forces; the world was changed by one simple carpenter, who in turn called fishermen to turn the world upside down. And that carpenter, the Redeemer and God of Israel, has power to enable us to do the same.
Robert Swanson